Kilwa Sultanate: The Glory of Islam on the East African Coast

Sh. Prof. Faid Mohammed Said

Series: Islamic Kingdoms in Africa – Humanity, Knowledge, and the Forgotten History

Introduction: The Series and Methodology

This academic series, “Islamic Kingdoms in Africa: Humanity, Knowledge, and the Forgotten History,” seeks to rediscover neglected pages of Islamic history across the African continent, where sovereign Islamic kingdoms emerged, produced knowledge, and established enduring religious and cultural identities.

Our aim is to highlight the civilizational contributions of these kingdoms—in historiography, religious outreach, trade, and language—and to counter stereotypical depictions that marginalize African Islam as derivative or peripheral. In this context, we turn our focus to the Kilwa Sultanate, which flourished along the East African coast and whose minarets attracted Muslim traders, scholars, and travelers for centuries.

I. Origins and Foundation

The Kilwa Sultanate was founded in the latter half of the 4th century AH (10th century CE) by ʿAlī ibn al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib—referred to in some sources as ʿAlī ibn Sulaymān—who migrated from southern Arabia to the East African coast and settled on the island of Kilwa Kisiwani, in present-day Tanzania.

He was followed by Arab migrants from Hadhramaut, Oman, and Yemen, who integrated with local communities and formed a vibrant Swahili Muslim society active in trade and daʿwah. This resulted in the establishment of an independent Islamic sultanate that played a pivotal role in the region’s history.

II. Rulers and Notable Leaders

Kilwa witnessed the reign of dozens of kings, some of whom extended their influence beyond the island. Notable rulers include:

• ʿAlī ibn al-Ḥusayn: The founder who established political and religious stability in Kilwa.
• Sultan al-Ḥasan ibn Sulaymān (14th century): The most prominent ruler of Kilwa, credited with building the Great Mosque and the famous Husuni Palace.
• Sulaymān ibn al-Ḥasan: Expanded the sultanate’s territory northward and southward, establishing diplomatic and commercial ties with India, Yemen, and ʿAdan.

The sultanate was governed through a hereditary monarchy that incorporated consultation (shūrā) and was influenced by Sunni Islam, particularly the Shāfiʿī school.

III. Geographic Reach and Influence

At its height, Kilwa’s influence stretched from southern Somalia to Mozambique, controlling key islands and ports such as:

• Mombasa, Lamu, Pate (in present-day Kenya)
• Zanzibar and Pemba (Tanzania)
• Sofala (Mozambique)

Kilwa reached its zenith in the 13th and 14th centuries CE, dominating the trade of gold from Zimbabwe, as well as ivory, cloves, and slaves. It served as a critical link in the supply chain of these strategic commodities to the wider Islamic world.

IV. Cultural and Religious Achievements

1. Urban Development: Kilwa’s Great Friday Mosque, built in the 11th century, is one of the oldest surviving stone mosques in sub-Saharan Africa. The city also featured palaces, markets, and advanced water systems.
2. Daʿwah and Education: Mosques doubled as centers of learning where Shāfiʿī jurisprudence, Arabic, and ḥadīth were taught. Merchants and scholars helped spread Islam further inland.
3. Swahili Muslim Identity: The Swahili language emerged as a lingua franca blending Arabic and Bantu elements, written in Arabic script. It remains Kilwa’s most enduring legacy.
4. Economic and Commercial Prosperity: Kilwa became a major node in global trade routes, with its port welcoming ships from India, Yemen, and China.

V. Legacy and Lasting Impact

• Architectural Heritage: The ruins of the Great Mosque and the Husuni Palace still stand. In 1981, UNESCO designated Kilwa Kisiwani a World Heritage Site, recognizing its significance as an early example of Islamic architecture in sub-Saharan Africa.
• Swahili Language: Swahili, with its Islamic roots, is now an official language in Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda and is widely used in Islamic religious discourse.
• Oral History and Memory: Coastal communities continue to preserve tales of the “Arab sultans” and “Cities of the Moon.” Kilwa remains a source of collective pride in Swahili memory.

VI. Decline and Fall of the Sultanate

The sultanate began to decline with the rise of Portuguese incursions in the early 16th century. In 1505, Portuguese commander Francisco de Almeida led a military expedition that occupied Kilwa and deposed Sultan al-Ḥasan ibn Sulaymān.

The Portuguese imposed taxes and monopolized trade, leading to the collapse of the local economy. The sultanate fragmented into smaller states, and the center of influence eventually shifted to Zanzibar.

VII. Historians’ Perspectives

A. African Historians

• Ali Mazrui regards Kilwa as “a model of indigenized Islam in Africa,” spread through trade, language, and intermarriage, not coercion.
• Abdulrahman Said Njimo notes that Kilwa was “a city of scholarship and Sharīʿah, not merely a commercial port.”

• B. Orientalists
• Richard F. Burton described Kilwa as “the ruins of a lost glory” and praised its refined Islamic architecture.
• G.S.P. Freeman-Grenville called it “the spiritual and commercial capital of the medieval Indian Ocean.”

• C. Research Institutions
• Tayyib Muhammad Hasan emphasized Kilwa as “a model of African Shāfiʿism adapted to local contexts.”
• Swahili Studies Centre – Nairobi described it as “the first maritime civilization in Africa with a clear Islamic orientation.”
• UNESCO recognized it as “a symbol of the integration of Islam, trade, and urbanization in Africa.”

VIII. Lessons and Reflections

• Islam as Civilization, Not Conquest: Islam spread in Kilwa through cultural interaction, not by force—a lesson for modern-day daʿwah.
• Religious and Commercial Integration: Trade provided a platform for Islamic values to flourish.
• Colonialism Destroys Civilizations: Kilwa’s fall illustrates how foreign intervention can unravel centuries of accumulated heritage.
• The Need for Indigenous Historiography: The absence of local historical documentation left many African Islamic kingdoms vulnerable to orientalist narratives.

Conclusion

The Kilwa Sultanate is not merely a historical memory; it is a living testament to what Islamic civilization can produce when it engages with its environment, understands its people, and leverages its geography. Kilwa affirms that Islam in Africa is not an anomaly but an integral part of the continent’s soul. From this experience, we draw inspiration for our civilizational awareness and our African Islamic identity.

Footnotes and References (Chicago Style)

1. Ali Al’amin Mazrui, The Swahili Ethos and the Islamic Legacy, in African Islam and Islam in Africa, ed. Nehemia Levtzion and Randall Pouwels (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 1998), 124–140.
2. Abdulrahman Said Njimo, Kilwa as a Model of Islamic Urbanism in the Pre‑Colonial Swahili Coast (PhD diss., University of Dar es Salaam, 2004), 44.
3. Richard F. Burton, Zanzibar: City, Island, and Coast, vol. 2 (London: Tinsley Brothers, 1872), 309.
4. G. S. P. Freeman-Grenville, The Medieval History of the Coast of Tanganyika (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962), 86.
5. Tayyib Muhammad Hasan, “al-Bunyah al-ʿIlmiyyah li-Salṭanat Kilwa wa Dawruhā fī Nashr al-Islām,” African Islamic Studies Journal 10 (2018): 71–93.
6. Swahili Studies Centre, Kilwa and the Swahili Urbanism (Nairobi: University of Nairobi Press, 2011).
7. UNESCO World Heritage Centre, “Ruins of Kilwa Kisiwani and Ruins of Songo Mnara,” accessed July 2025,.