The Almoravid State: From the Desert to Al-Andalus

Prof. Dr. Faid Mohammed Said

Islamic Kingdoms in Africa: Man, Knowledge, and the Forgotten History

Series Introduction: Islamic Kingdoms in Africa between Marginalisation and Living Memory

The Islamic history of Africa constitutes a fundamental tributary of the broader Islamic civilisation. Yet many of its dimensions have remained forgotten or marginalised within mainstream historical studies. When speaking of Islam and its history, attention is often directed towards the Arab East or the Andalusian experience, while the Islamic kingdoms that flourished in the heart of Africa—contributing to the spread of knowledge, culture, and trade, and connecting the desert with the coast, and Africa with Europe—are frequently overlooked.

It is from this perspective that our peer-reviewed series of studies, “Islamic Kingdoms in Africa: Man, Knowledge, and the Forgotten History”, emerges. It seeks to revive this civilisational memory and to recall the political, social, and cultural experiences shaped by the African Islamic kingdoms. From the Sultanate of Sennar in the Nile Valley, to Kilwa on the Indian Ocean, to the Tuareg states in the heart of the Sahara, and finally to the Almoravid state that arose from the Sahara and reached al-Andalus, African Muslims were builders of civilisation and active participants in shaping the global Islamic history.

In this context comes our present study of the Almoravid state, a remarkable experiment that began in a seemingly marginal desert environment, yet soon became a global power that altered the course of Islamic history in the Maghrib and al-Andalus.

Introduction: The Almoravids between the Desert and al-Andalus

The Almoravid state (448–541 AH / 1056–1147 CE) was one of the most prominent political entities of the Islamic West. It was founded by a cadre of jurists and murābiṭūn (those devoted to spiritual retreats for worship), who combined ascetic piety and strict religious training on the one hand, with military and organisational skill on the other.

The movement originated in the depths of the Sahara, when the Sanhaja tribes (Gudala, Lamtuna, and Massufa) united under a single leadership inspired by a reformist mission led by the jurist ʿAbd Allāh ibn Yāsīn. From a small ribāṭ (religious retreat) on a remote island in the Senegal River, the movement grew into a formidable power stretching from the Senegal in the south to al-Andalus in the north.

The Almoravids became a vital link between Saharan Africa and European al-Andalus. They helped save al-Andalus from early collapse before Christian advances and founded the city of Marrakesh, which became one of the great capitals of Islamic civilisation.

Reasons for the Rise of the State

The emergence of the Almoravids was no accident, but rather the result of a complex interaction of religious, social, political, and economic factors:

1. Religious and Reformist Factor

The Sahara and the Maghrib al-Aqṣā (Morocco) witnessed a decline in adherence to Islamic law, alongside the spread of superstition and ignorance of religious rulings. ʿAbd Allāh ibn Yāsīn therefore called for a return to the fundamentals of Islam according to the Mālikī school.

• Tribal and Social Factor

The Sanhaja tribes were fragmented and prone to conflict, leaving them vulnerable to weakness and division. Their unification under a single banner was a matter of survival.

• Economic Factor

Trans-Saharan trade—particularly in gold and salt—played a decisive role in Almoravid ascendance. The caravan routes linking West Africa (Ghana and later Mali) with Morocco provided wealth and power.

• Political Factor

The decline of the Idrisid dynasty in Morocco and the absence of a unifying power created a vacuum filled by the Almoravids, who adopted the model of a religious-military state.

Emergence of the State and its Key Founders

• Yaḥyā ibn Ibrāhīm al-Judālī: Chieftain of the Gudala tribe, who initiated the reform journey when he travelled to Qayrawān seeking a scholar to teach his people Islam.
• ʿAbd Allāh ibn Yāsīn: A Mālikī jurist trained by scholars of Qayrawān, who established a ribāṭ on a remote island in the Senegal River—whence the name “Almoravids” (al-Murābiṭūn). A charismatic figure combining knowledge with reformist rigour.
• Yaḥyā ibn ʿUmar al-Lamtūnī: The first military commander of the movement, who succeeded in subduing and uniting the scattered tribes.
• Abū Bakr ibn ʿUmar al-Lamtūnī: Took leadership after Yaḥyā’s death, expanding Almoravid influence deep into the Sahara.
• Yūsuf ibn Tāshfīn: The true founder of the state, renowned for his political wisdom, for establishing Marrakesh in 1070 CE, and for his decisive victory at the Battle of al-Zallāqa (479 AH / 1086 CE).

Geographical Extent

At its zenith under Yūsuf ibn Tāshfīn, the Almoravid empire stretched:

• South to the Senegal River and present-day Mauritania.
• North to Morocco and al-Andalus.
• East to western Algeria.
• West to the Atlantic coast.

Thus, it became a Saharan-Mediterranean empire, uniting Africa and Europe under one political framework.

Major Achievements

1. Political Unity: The Almoravids unified the Sanhaja tribes, Morocco, and al-Andalus under a single authority—an exceptional achievement for the era.
2. Religious and Juridical Reform: They established the Mālikī school as the doctrinal foundation, spread mosques and schools, and shaped Morocco’s enduring religious identity.
3. Urban Development: They founded Marrakesh as the state capital, which flourished into one of the grand cities of the Islamic world.
4. Military Victories: Most notably the Battle of al-Zallāqa, led by Yūsuf ibn Tāshfīn against Alfonso VI of Castile, which saved al-Andalus from collapse.
5. Trade and Economy: They controlled the gold and salt routes of the Sahara, amassing vast wealth.
6. Scholarship and Learning: Great scholars emerged during their reign, such as Qāḍī ʿIyāḍ, while Morocco became a centre of Mālikī jurisprudence.

Decline and Fall

The Almoravid state collapsed in 541 AH / 1147 CE due to both internal and external causes:

• Weak rulers after Yūsuf ibn Tāshfīn.
• Over-reliance on tribal loyalties.
• Local revolts in Morocco.
• The rise of the Almohad movement under Ibn Tūmart, offering a rival religious-political vision.
• Christian military pressures in al-Andalus.

Enduring Legacy

• The consolidation of the Mālikī school in Morocco, which persists to this day.
• The founding of Marrakesh, which endured as a civilisational capital.
• The military-spiritual concept of ribāṭ.
• The preservation of al-Andalus for two more centuries under Muslim rule.

Lessons for African and Muslim Youth

The Almoravid experience demonstrates that the margins can make history. From the desert, long perceived as a civilisational void, emerged a project with a religious and cultural mission that reshaped an entire region. The lesson for African and Muslim youth is that an organised mission grounded in knowledge and faith can overcome challenges, and that learning and jurisprudence are not merely passive reflections of history but active forces shaping it.

The Almoravids in African Historiography

• The Senegalese historian Cheikh Anta Diop saw the Almoravids as instrumental in integrating Black Africa into the Islamic sphere.
• Other researchers, such as Bashir Diagne, argue that the Almoravids established the first trans-Saharan state linking Black Africa with North Africa.

The Almoravids in Orientalist Scholarship

• Some Orientalists, such as E. Lévi-Provençal, considered the Almoravids a mere militant movement with a rigid outlook.
• Others, such as Henri Pérès, acknowledged their role in founding Marrakesh and enriching Moroccan civilisation.
• Still others, like the Spanish Orientalist Ramón Menéndez Pidal, highlighted their significance in rescuing al-Andalus.

The Almoravids in Research Centres and Universities

• Studies at Dakar University regard the Almoravids as part of Senegalese historical identity.
• Research at Rabat University emphasises their role in entrenching the Mālikī school.
• Studies at Oxford and the Sorbonne examine their defence of al-Andalus and their role in linking Africa and Europe.

Conclusion

The Almoravids represent a unique phase of Islamic history, combining religious reform, political unity, and military power. They proved that the desert is not an obstacle but a civilisational bridge, and that Africa is not a margin but a beating heart of the Islamic world.

---

References

1. ʿAbd al-Hādī al-Tāzī, The Almoravid State: History and Civilisation (Rabat: Faculty of Letters Publications, 1990).
2. Muḥammad ibn ʿIdhārī, al-Bayān al-Mughrib fī Akhbār al-Andalus wa-l-Maghrib, ed. Bashshār ʿAwwād Maʿrūf (Beirut: Dār al-Gharb al-Islāmī, 1983).
3. Ibn Khaldūn, al-ʿIbar wa-Dīwān al-Mubtadaʾ wa-l-Khabar (Beirut: Dār al-Fikr, 2000).
4. Henry Terrasse, Histoire du Maroc: Les dynasties musulmanes (Paris: Maisonneuve, 1952).
5. E. Lévi-Provençal, Histoire de l’Espagne musulmane (Paris: G.-P. Maisonneuve, 1950).
6. Cheikh Anta Diop, Precolonial Black Africa (Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books, 1987).
7. Bashir Diagne, African Islam and the Sahara Connections (Dakar: IFAN, 2005).