Series: Islamic Kingdoms in Africa: Humanity, Knowledge, and Forgotten History
Professor Dr. Faid Mohammed Said
Abstract
This article examines the rise, consolidation, and legacy of the Almohad State (524–668 AH / 1130–1269 CE), which emerged as one of the most powerful political and intellectual entities in the Islamic Maghrib. Founded upon a religious reform movement by Ibn Tūmart and consolidated into an empire by ʿAbd al-Muʾmin, the Almohads unified the Maghrib, extended their influence across al-Andalus, and forged enduring ties with Sub-Saharan Africa. This study explores the causes of the Almohad rise, the biographies of their principal leaders, the geographical expanse of their rule, their major achievements, and the reasons for their eventual decline. Furthermore, it engages with the perspectives of African historians and Orientalists, highlighting the intellectual, political, and commercial dimensions of Almohad power. The article concludes with reflections on the lessons of the Almohad experience for Muslims and Africans, emphasizing the importance of unity, knowledge, and the integration of North and Sub-Saharan Africa into a shared Islamic civilizational framework.
Introduction
The history of Islam in Africa is often viewed through the prism of its heartlands in the Middle East, yet Africa was never a marginal periphery. From the earliest days of Islam, North Africa became a core region of Islamic civilization, and the diffusion of Islam southwards across the Sahara cemented Africa’s place as a vital contributor to the Islamic world. Far from being isolated, the continent’s kingdoms, empires, and scholarly centers became integral to Islamic political, economic, and intellectual networks.
Among these historical formations, the Almohad State stands out as a defining chapter in the history of the Maghrib and its connections to Sub-Saharan Africa. Rising in the twelfth century, the Almohads achieved the unification of the Maghrib, expanded into al-Andalus, and reinforced trans-Saharan connections that bound together the Mediterranean basin and the western Sudan. This study revisits the Almohad experience as both a North African and African phenomenon, situating it in its broader Islamic and global context.
I. Historical Context and Foundations of the Almohad State
The Almohad movement arose in a period of political fragmentation and religious contestation in the Maghrib. By the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, the Almoravid dynasty (r. 1040–1147) had achieved remarkable success in consolidating power across Morocco, Algeria, and parts of Spain. However, their later years were marked by internal divisions, growing rigidity in jurisprudential policy, and mounting pressure from the Christian kingdoms of Iberia.
1. The Religious Reform of Ibn Tūmart
Muḥammad ibn Tūmart (d. 524/1130), a Berber reformer of Masmūda origin, returned from his studies in the East convinced of the necessity of purifying Islamic belief and practice in the Maghrib. His message centered on tawḥīd (the oneness of God) not merely as a theological doctrine but as a comprehensive program of religious and political renewal. He denounced anthropomorphism, innovations, and what he perceived as laxity under the Almoravids. His followers proclaimed him as the Mahdī, giving the movement both messianic fervor and political legitimacy.
2. The Consolidation by ʿAbd al-Muʾmin
While Ibn Tūmart died before realizing his political vision, his disciple ʿAbd al-Muʾmin ibn ʿAlī (d. 558/1163) transformed the Almohad movement into an empire. Through military campaigns, he overthrew the Almoravids and extended Almohad dominion across the Maghrib and into al-Andalus. Crucially, he established administrative and military institutions that secured Almohad authority and ensured that the movement did not remain a sectarian uprising but evolved into a durable state.
II. Geographical Expansion and Political Reach
The Almohad State at its height stretched across an impressive expanse: Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, southern Spain and Portugal, and deep into the Sahara. The caravan routes connecting Timbuktu and the Niger bend to Marrakesh and Seville were vital arteries of commerce and cultural exchange. This geographical scope gave the Almohads both Mediterranean and African orientations.
III. Major Achievements of the Almohad State
1. Political Unification
The Almohads achieved what few dynasties before them had managed: the political unification of the entire Maghrib under one authority. This unification provided stability, facilitated economic integration, and reinforced the cultural and religious cohesion of the region.
2. Military Successes
The pinnacle of Almohad military power was the Battle of Alarcos (1195), where Yaʿqūb al-Manṣūr inflicted a decisive defeat upon the Castilian forces. This victory temporarily secured Muslim presence in Iberia and bolstered Almohad prestige.
3. Architectural Legacy
The Almohads left behind enduring monuments: the Koutoubia Mosque in Marrakesh, the Hassan Tower in Rabat, and the Giralda in Seville. These masterpieces testify to their architectural vision and remain iconic landmarks of Islamic heritage.
4. Intellectual and Scientific Patronage
The Almohads supported leading scholars such as Ibn Ṭufayl, Ibn Rushd (Averroes), and Ibn Zuhr. Their patronage fostered a flourishing of philosophy, medicine, and jurisprudence. Ibn Rushd’s Aristotelian commentaries, in particular, bridged Islamic and European intellectual traditions and paved the way for the Renaissance.
5. Economic and Commercial Networks
By regulating and protecting trans-Saharan trade, the Almohads strengthened commercial exchanges between North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa. Gold, salt, ivory, and slaves flowed northward, while textiles, horses, and manufactured goods traveled southward. This integration underpinned both Almohad prosperity and the rise of later empires in the Sahel.
IV. Causes of Decline
Despite its achievements, the Almohad State entered decline during the thirteenth century. Several factors contributed:
The catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212) against the Christian coalition in Iberia.¹
Internal dynastic disputes and weakening central authority.
Persistent tribal divisions undermining cohesion.
The emergence of rivals such as the Marinids in Morocco and the Hafsids in Tunisia.
By 1269, the fall of Marrakesh to the Marinids marked the official end of Almohad rule.
V. Enduring Legacy
The Almohads left behind:
Architectural monuments still standing today.
A philosophical heritage through Ibn Rushd that influenced both Islamic and European traditions.
A precedent of Maghribi political unity.
Strengthened trans-Saharan links, paving the way for Mali and other African Muslim empires.
VI. Perspectives of Historians
1. African Historians
African historians emphasize the Almohads’ role in continental integration. UNESCO’s General History of Africa notes:
“The Almohads built their power upon two fundamental economic factors: the movement of trans-Saharan trade and the northward flow of Sudanese gold, together with the integration of principal centers of economic growth.”²
It also asserts:
“The Almohad State represented the culmination of efforts to unify the Maghrib and the western Islamic world, surpassing the achievements of the Almoravids.”³
Libyan historian Jamil Abun-Nasr stresses that Almohad legitimacy was intertwined with tribal support, observing:
“The religious doctrine that legitimized the rulers’ authority was tied to the tribal groups that had supported them before they attained power.”⁴
UNESCO further highlights their role in preparing the ground for Timbuktu’s emergence as a scholarly hub, later flourishing under Mali.⁵
2. Orientalist Scholarship
Moshe Fletcher stresses Ibn Tūmart’s rational theology, assigning reason a central role in the formation of doctrine.⁶
Amira Bennison emphasizes that participation in jihād was essential for Almohad legitimacy.⁷
Maribel Fierro highlights the forced conversions of Jews and Christians as controversial policies.⁸
Amar Baadj situates the Almohads within a Mediterranean context of rivalry with the Banū Ghāniya and the Ayyubids.⁹
Lévi-Provençal and Terrasse considered the Almohads an “ideal experiment” that failed through doctrinal rigidity but left enduring architectural and intellectual contributions.¹⁰
VII. Lessons and Reflections
The Almohad experience provides enduring lessons:
The necessity of unity in confronting external challenges.
The dangers of internal divisions.
The central role of scholarship in civilizational flourishing.
The importance of African connectivity as part of Islamic civilization.
Conclusion
The Almohad State was more than a political dynasty; it was a civilizational project that unified the Maghrib, renewed Islamic doctrine, and integrated Africa into the broader Islamic world. Its decline highlights the fragility of empires faced with disunity, yet its intellectual, architectural, and historical legacies remain vital to the memory of Islamic civilization.
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Footnotes
Joseph F. O’Callaghan, Reconquest and Crusade in Medieval Spain (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003), 133.
UNESCO, General History of Africa, Vol. IV: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century (Paris: UNESCO, 1984), 27.
Ibid., 30.
Jamil Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 105.
UNESCO, General History of Africa, Vol. IV, 43.
Moshe Fletcher, “The Almohad Tawḥīd: Theology Which Relies on Logic,” Studia Islamica 73 (1991): 51.
Amira K. Bennison, Jihad and Its Interpretation in Pre-Colonial Morocco (London: Routledge, 2002), 22.
Maribel Fierro, “Religious Minorities under the Almohads: An Introduction,” Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies 2, no. 2 (2010): 155.
Amar S. Baadj, Saladin, the Almohads and the Banū Ghāniya: The Contest for North Africa (12th–13th Centuries) (Leiden: Brill, 2017), 3. Évariste Lévi-Provençal, Documents inédits d’histoire almohade (Paris: Maisonneuve, 1928), 14; Henri Terrasse, Histoire du Maroc (Casablanca: Société Marocaine d’Edition, 19
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