“Islamic Kingdoms in Africa – People, Knowledge, and a Forgotten History”
Introduction: Islamic Kingdoms in Africa and the Context of Their Emergence
During the medieval and early modern periods, the African continent witnessed the emergence of Islamic kingdoms and sultanates that combined religion, sovereignty, intellectual development, and social justice. These entities contributed to shaping an authentic Islamic African identity based on political independence and openness to both religious and worldly sciences. Among the most prominent of these kingdoms was the Islamic Sultanate of Darfur, noted for its distinct political structure, independent judiciary, and role in spreading Islam in western Sudan.
1. Origins and Historical Context
The Sultanate of Darfur was founded in the 17th century CE (around 1600) in the Darfur region, located in what is now western Sudan. Its establishment followed the decline of earlier sultanates, such as the First Fur Sultanate and the Tunjur Sultanate. It emerged from a local interaction between African cultural heritage and Islam, which had reached the area via trade routes and missionary activity from the north and west.
2. The Early Founders
Sultan Sulayman Solong (ruled c. 1660–1680) is considered the true founder of the Islamic Sultanate of Darfur. He was the first to unify the Fur tribes under one banner and declared Islam the official religion of the state. Known for his wisdom and foresight, he established justice institutions and linked the state with wider Islamic networks.
His successors, such as Sultan Ahmad Bakr, strengthened the role of scholars and judges, forged diplomatic ties with the Sultanates of Wadai and Sennar, and reinforced the unity of Darfur.
3. Key Leaders and Sultans
- Sultan Muhammad al-Fadl (1801–1839): His reign marked the peak of the state’s prosperity. He expanded trade relations, supported the judiciary and education, built mosques, and welcomed scholars from outside the sultanate.
- Sultan Muhammad Husayn and Sultan Ibrahim Qurdu: They led the sultanate through turbulent times and played key roles in dealing with military and administrative challenges.
- Sultan Ali Dinar (1898–1916): One of the most iconic modern figures of the sultanate, he revived the state after a temporary fall, provided financial and logistical support to the Hijaz, and was the last Sultan of Darfur before the British occupation.
4. Geographical Boundaries of the Sultanate
The Sultanate of Darfur stretched from the oases of North Kordofan in the east to the borders of present-day Chad in the west, and from the edges of Libya in the north to the upper Nile in the south. This strategic location in the heart of Africa allowed it to control trade routes across the Sahara Desert.
5. Key Achievements of the Sultanate
- Establishing Islamic judiciary on Maliki jurisprudence foundations, while incorporating local customary law within the bounds of Sharia.
- Spreading Islam across large parts of western Sudan and Chad, and Arabising significant segments of the population.
- Promoting education through Qur’anic schools, honouring scholars, and establishing religious endowments (waqf) institutions.
- Maintaining political independence from foreign powers until shortly before British occupation.
- Economic integration based on agriculture and trans-Saharan trade caravans.
6. The Fall of the Sultanate and Its Causes
The Sultanate of Darfur fell in 1916 following a fierce battle led by Sultan Ali Dinar against British forces. The main reasons for its fall included:
- Intensifying colonial pressure from the British and French.
- Strained relations with the Khedivate and the British due to Darfur’s support for the Ottomans in World War I.
- British military superiority and regional abandonment of the Sultan.
7. Darfur in the Islamic-African Memory
Darfur is remembered as a symbol of independence and Islamic dignity in African consciousness. The name of Sultan Ali Dinar remains engraved in the memories of the people, particularly for his support of the Holy Sanctuaries and his refusal to submit to colonial rule.
8. Views of African Historians and Scholars
Senegalese historian Cheikh Anta Diop regarded the Sultanate of Darfur as “one of the last bastions of Islamic sovereignty in Africa before the European invasion.” Sudanese researcher Yusuf Fadl described it as “a state of law, Sharia, and internal independence,” praising its role in preserving Islamic identity.
9. Darfur Through the Eyes of Orientalists
British orientalist R. S. O. Mound viewed the sultanate as a “primitive model of an Islamic state,” while French scholar Clément Huart gave it more credit, describing it as “a state with respectable institutions and genuine religious legitimacy.” British colonial reports also referenced Darfur’s military strength and its Islamic judicial organisation.
10. Books, Narratives, and Sources on the Sultanate
The Sultanate has been mentioned in several key works, including:
- History of Sudan by Naum Shuqayr
- The Sultanate of Darfur by Ibrahim Fawzi
- Darfur documents archived in Khartoum and London
- Memoirs of British colonial officers
Oral traditions in Darfur continue to recount detailed accounts of leaders, battles, and royal customs.
11. Enduring Legacy in the Present Day
Traces of the Sultanate remain in certain palaces, old mosques, and local judicial systems. Its symbolic significance is still alive in the political and social culture of Darfur’s people, often invoked as a reference for sovereignty and independence.
12. Western Research Centres and Studies on Darfur
Many Western universities have studied Darfur’s history, especially following the recent political crisis. However, most of these studies neglected the Islamic and sovereign dimension of the sultanate. Important studies include:
- Research from Cambridge University on Islam in Sudan
- British National Archives (Kew): Sudan Political Service files on Darfur
- Master’s and PhD theses in African and European universities
Conclusion
The Islamic Sultanate of Darfur was not merely a local state in western Sudan, but a comprehensive political, intellectual, and judicial experience that united Islam, African identity, and political dignity. It remains a model worthy of renewed academic attention, with fair historical assessment beyond marginalisation or colonial misrepresentation.
Footnotes and References
- Yusuf Fadl Hasan, Modern History of Sudan, University of Khartoum Press, 1990
- Naum Shuqayr, History of Sudan, Cairo, 1903
- Ibrahim Fawzi, The Islamic Sultanate of Darfur, Dar al-Ma’arif, 1981
- Clément Huart, L’Afrique musulmane, Paris: Hachette, 1900
- The National Archives, UK – Sudan Political Service Files on Darfur (1910–1916)
- Oral history collected from Al-Fashir, 1995–2010 (unpublished)
- University of Khartoum, Faculty of Arts, Department of History: MA theses on Darfur
- Cheikh Anta Diop, Civilization or Barbarism, 1981
